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Among the numerous glands in the human body, the thyroid is one of the essential ones. It is a small gland that works to regulate an individual’s metabolism by producing the thyroid hormone. Thyroid problems can crop up when the gland either overproduces or underproduces the thyroid hormone. The two most common thyroid diseases observed in people are hyperthyroidism, i.e., an overproduction of the thyroid hormone, and hypothyroidism, i.e., the underproduction of the same hormone. Close to about 13 million people experience thyroid disease symptoms every year. It is important to note that if this condition is left untreated, various other complications in your body can arise. Hence, it is necessary to gain a sufficient understanding of various thyroid problems and thyroid disease treatment. Types of Thyroid Disease The various diseases of the thyroid are: Hypothyroidism Hyperthyroidism Thyroid nodules Goiter Thyroid cancer 1.   Hypothyroidism Woman experiencing hypothyroidism, Credit: Pixabay It is a condition where an individual’s thyroid gland is not able to produce sufficient quantities of the thyroid hormone. The condition drastically slows down a person’s metabolism. It is often observed more in women than men. The primary cause of this disease is Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, which is an autoimmune condition. This thyroid disease symptoms include: Fatigue Dry skin Memory problem Constipation Depression At present, there is no thyroid disease treatment of this condition. Oral administration of the thyroid hormone replacement is the only option. 2.   Hyperthyroidism Person experiencing hyperthyroidism, Credit: Pixabay This condition arises when the thyroid gland becomes overactive. Excess production of this hormone speeds up the metabolic processes. When the thyroid gland inflames, it overproduces the hormone. The common cause of this disorder is an autoimmune condition called the Grave’s disease. You might experience the following symptoms: Sudden spike in energy Anxiety Sleeping problems Unintentional weight loss Muscle weakness Brittle hair and thin skin More than usual bowel movements To treat this condition, antithyroid drugs and radioactive iodine tablets are prescribed by the doctor. In sever cases, a surgery to remove the thyroid gland the only option. 3.   Thyroid Nodules Woman getting thyroid injections, Credit: Pixabay The condition is characterised by the formation of lumps in the thyroid gland. In most cases, these nodules are harmless and do not cause any complications. However, sometimes they can lead to hyperthyroidism. In rare cases, these nodules turn cancerous. The causes of this nodule formation is largely unknown. It is observed commonly in women than men. There are no symptoms associated with this condition. In case the nodules turn harmful, the doctor undertakes a surgery to remove them. 4.   Goitre Person suffering goitre, Credit: Pixabay Goitre is a condition where the thyroid gland becomes enlarged. It can be temporary without requiring any treatment. It can also be permanent in the form of a symptom of another underlying thyroid disease. A number of causes can lead to this condition. They are Grave’s disease, thyroid nodules, Hashimoto’s disease, or thyroid cancer. You may experience the following symptoms: Excessive coughing Difficulty in swallowing and breathing Tightness in the throat Swelling at the base of the neck. To treat this condition, the doctor may prescribe certain medications or it can also be left untreated if it is without any symptoms. 5.   Thyroid Cancer Diagram showing thyroid cancer, Credit: Pixabay Cancer of the thyroid gland is called thyroid cancer. It starts with swelling or lump formation on your neck. Although it is usually without symptoms, you may feel difficulty in swallowing. The nodule or the lump needs a close examination by your doctor to determine if it is cancerous or not. Cancer surgery is the common treatment that is done for this condition. Various types of therapies, like radioiodine therapy that destroys cancerous cells left during surgery, are done afterwards. Thyroid Effects in Females Woman experiencing infertility, Credit: Pixabay As mentioned above, women are more prone to developing various thyroid diseases. It affects them in the following ways: Irregular periods. Depending on the problem, your periods can be either too light or too heavy. Women may experience infertility issues. Women are also at a risk of developing certain health problems during pregnancy due to thyroid conditions. If you experience any of these symptoms over a certain period of time, then its time to get your thyroid gland checked.

For those working in a community-based organization or an industry with potentially infectious materials, exposure to blood spills is common. But this exposure to these substances increases the risk of the bloodborne pathogens spreading in the atmosphere. The blood that you’re exposed to can be affected by diseases like HIV, or hepatitis B, among many. It is of utmost importance to know how to clean up blood spills in lab. You should ensure that your janitorial staff has the right equipment to carry out the cleaning process. You should follow the OSHA’s (Occupational Safety and Health Administration) guidelines for cleaning up blood spills in hospital to ensure that the health and safety of all the hospital staff as well as patients is maintained. How Does Osha Clean up Blood Spills? A person cleaning a blood spill, Credit: Pixabay The five basic steps for cleaning up blood spills workplace or in lab are: Prevent the bloodborne pathogen from direct contact. Wear gloves, mask, and a disposable gown for this purpose. Contain and remove the spill. Use tongs to put away all the broken glass shards or fragments. After soaking up most of the blood in the cloth, disinfect the area thoroughly. All the disposable things that have been used in the cleaning process must be packed in a biohazard bag. It should also be labelled to prevent anyone from coming into contact with them. Apply generous amounts of sanitisers in the spill area. Ensure that the room is well-ventilated and let the sanitiser sit in the area for a considerable period of time. Thus, this is how to clean up blood spills osha recommendations. Key Points of OSHA’s Bloodborne Pathogens Standard Disposable face masks, Credit: Pixabay There are four key points that are outlined in OSHA’s bloodborne pathogens standard. They are: Creating a plan to reduce the exposure or contact with the infected material. Treating all contaminated material as infectious by applying universal precautions in dealing with them. Providing basic protective equipment to everyone in the cleaning staff like eye protection, suits, masks, and gloves. Ensure that every worker is fully educated and trained in all aspects of the OSHA standard that includes exposure to bloodborne pathogens. The main aim of OSHA’s standard is to prevent any spills from happening in the first place. All these precautions can be applied to other clean up procedures that do not include blood spills. Equipment’s Included in OSHA’s Bloodborne Pathogen Cleanup Kit Personal Protection Equipment kit materials, Credit: Pixabay Some specialised equipment is needed to deal with blood spills and other bodily fluid spills. The location, size, and type of the spill determine the equipment that will be used by the cleaning staff. The equipment mentioned below is suitable for cleaning every type of spill. The equipment checklist is as follows: Disposable gloves Disinfecting towels Absorbent materials like litter, sand, etc. A biohazard bag with a zip Scoop Protection for eyes Protection for head in the form of a cap Mask Protective gown How to Clean Blood Spills Outdoors? Blood spills on the stairs, Credit: Pixabay Sometimes it so happens that bodily fluids or blood can spill outside the vicinity of the hospital. It presents a difficult situation as cleaning blood from areas like dirt or grass is not fully possible. At the same time, you cannot prevent the spread of bloodborne pathogens outside. In such a scenario, the outdoor area should be properly disinfected. The affected area should also be blocked away. It will prevent anyone else from coming into contact with the blood spill. A mixture of bleach and water can be used to wash the area and disinfect it. Those who are tasked with the responsibility to clean blood spills in the outdoor area should wear proper PPE kits. They should know the procedure of effectively cleaning the spills. Contact with the blood spills or other bodily fluids are a major cause of infections and other sexually transmitted diseases in otherwise healthy individuals. It is recommended that the janitorial staff follow the guidelines laid down by OSHA to the best of their abilities.

A majority of the world’s population suffers from chronic knee pain. It severely hinders the quality of their lives. Your knee is the biggest joint in your body. Naturally, any interruption in its proper functioning will make you susceptible to much discomfort. Whether it’s temporary, chronic, or sudden, knee pain can make your daily routines come to an abrupt halt. There are many causes of knee pain. More than usual physical exhaustion, progressing age, and an individual’s bone density, all play a part in contributing to it. Fortunately, there are many knee pain treatment at home remedies that will alleviate your pain to a great extent. Effective Home Remedies to Treat Knee Pain Knee pain can be a symptom of underlying joint conditions like arthritis, osteoporosis, and osteoarthritis. So you should not leave it undiagnosed and untreated. Seek medical help if your pain becomes unbearable. If you’re searching for ways on how to get rid of knee pain fast, then these methods will prove to be immensely helpful. Knee pain relief exercises Lose weight Drink ginger tea Take turmeric milk Avoid strenuous weight-lifting exercises Use heat and cold treatment 1.   Knee Pain Relief Exercises Person being assisted by physical therapist, Credit: Pixabay You can consult a physiotherapist who will tell you certain strengthening exercises you can perform at home to relieve your knee pain. Strengthening upper leg muscles with exercises will greatly help you to manage pain. Simple calf and leg stretching exercises will also facilitate a better range of motion of your knee joint. Some exercises that you can do at home are raising your leg while sitting or lying. Sitting and repeatedly standing on a chair is also another good exercise. You can also lie in a bridge position with your hips off the floor. Walking and swimming are also gentle exercises that are recommended by doctors as arthritis knee pain treatment at home. 2.   Lose Weight Person losing weight, Credit: Pixabay If you carry extra weight on your body, then that will exert pressure on your knee joints. It will directly contribute to knee pain. Thus, losing weight will help you to get relief from this pain. To lose weight, simply cut all the processed, high sugar, and high-fat foods from your diet. Eat more fruits and vegetables and consume a high protein diet. At the same time, incorporate some physical activity daily into your routine like walking, jogging, cycling, etc. 3.   Drink Ginger Tea Ginger tea, Credit: Pixabay Include anti-inflammatory herbs and spices like ginger into your diet. It helps reduce inflammation and swelling in your body, thus giving you relief from pain. You can apply ginger oil on your knees or consume some ginger tea with milk. 4.   Take Turmeric Milk Turmeric milk, Credit: Pixabay Turmeric is another great anti-inflammatory spice that works as an antiseptic. Make some turmeric milk at home by warming milk and mixing a teaspoon of turmeric powder in it. The healing properties of turmeric will give you relief from the joint pain. 5.   Avoid Strenuous Weight-Lifting Exercises Persons doing strength training, Credit: Pixabay Avoid doing weight-lifting exercises like heavy squatting and using the leg extension machines. It will put extra stress and pressure on your knee joint. Do these exercises without any weight and with proper form. Doing them improperly will place an even greater burden on your knees. Always make sure to stretch your body after completing the workout session. 6.   Use Heat and Cold Treatment Person using heat and cold treatment, Credit: Pixabay It is a common treatment that is prescribed to patients with knee pain. Apply an ice pack on your knee joint for around 10-15 minutes. It will reduce inflammation and swelling. After that, apply a heat pack like a warm water bottle in that area. It will minimize all the joint stiffness and will allow a normal range of motion. Keep in mind that chronic knee pain is a sign of an underlying joint condition. The above-mentioned home remedies are very useful in pain management. But if you’re experiencing a pain that is worsening by the day, it is time to consult your doctor.

Also known as swimmer’s shoulder or shoulder impingement syndrome, shoulder impingement is a common condition that affects athletes and those engaged in activities like lifting, painting, and swimming. One of its most common symptoms is a constant pain in the affected shoulder of the person. The problem becomes so nagging that people often wonder how to get rid of shoulder impingement as early as possible. The condition makes you experience a painful sensation in your shoulders even at rest. This condition makes about half of all shoulder injuries that people who are active commonly get. Till now, there is no best way to get rid of shoulder impingement pain. Plenty of rest and not engaging in physically demanding activities for a few weeks or months is what will help your shoulder to heal properly. What Is Shoulder Impingement? Your shoulder enables you to perform many movements. Hence, it is one of the most vulnerable joints in your body. They help in many flexing, extending, and rotating movements. But certain overhead motions can irritate the rotator cuff tendons sometimes. When this area becomes irritated and inflamed, you experience sharp pain. This is essentially what is called shoulder impingement syndrome. What causes shoulder impingement? Diagram showing shoulder blade, Credit: Pixabay Shoulder impingement occurs as a result of all the physical activities where your rotator cuff area is overused. These activities can include doing overhead presses with weights, swimming, and other sports like tennis and baseball. Repeatedly using your shoulder for the movements swells the tendons in your shoulder. Alternatively, if you have weak shoulder muscles or other shoulder imbalances, you can also develop shoulder impingement problems. Before you self diagnose yourself as having shoulder impingement syndrome and seek an answer to how do you get rid of shoulder impingement pain, first look at the symptoms mentioned below to see how many of them do you have What Are the Symptoms of Shoulder Impingement? Woman experiencing shoulder pain, Credit: Pixabay Symptoms of this condition may include: Pain while lifting your arm in the shoulder. And, Pain that moves from front to the side of your shoulder. Pain that aggravates during night time. Weakness in the shoulder area. How to Get Rid of Shoulder Impingement Syndrome? Person moving shoulder under doctor supervision, Credit: Pixabay It may take you about 6-8 weeks to completely recover from shoulder impingement pain. Rest and avoiding all the repetitive movements are crucial to its recovery. But that does not mean that your shoulder should always remain in a static position. It will lead to another complication known as the ‘frozen shoulders’. So, light movements should not be completely foregone by you. There are other ways by which you can get relief at home. These include: Applying ice-pack to the affected area frequently throughout the day. Make sure to put a wet towel between your skin and the ice pack to reduce skin damage. Taking non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs like Ibuprofen. The medicine is available at most medical stores. Doing a certain range of motion, strengthening, and isometric exercises at home under the supervision of your physical therapist. Avoid engaging in strenuous activities. Exercises You Can Do to Alleviate Shoulder Impingement Pain Person exercising under doctor’s supervision, Credit: Pixabay There are certain exercises that you can try out by yourself at home if you want to know how to get rid of shoulder impingement pain. Stand straight with your palms by your side. The palms of your hands should be facing forward. Now squeeze your shoulder blades and be in that position for around 5-10 seconds. Do this for at least 5-10 times. Stretch your arm and move it forward using just your shoulder. Now move the shoulder backward without moving your back or neck. Do not bend your arm. Lie on the side which is not affected. Now bend your top arm in an angle of 90 degrees. Your elbow should be on your hip. Now rotate your lower arm up. Repeat this exercise for 10-20 times. Stand in a doorway. Hold the sides of the doors. Your arms should be a bit below your shoulder height. Now turn your upper body away from that arm. Hold in this position for around 5-10 seconds. If during any of these exercises, you experience pain in any part of your shoulder, stop doing them immediately. Alternatively, you can reduce the duration of the exercise if its causing you discomfort. Shoulder impingement syndrome is treatable. However, it may take you a considerable amount of time to heal. Don’t rush through the process. Take it slow.

One of the essential parts of your body is the hip joint. It is responsible for bearing the majority of your total body weight. You are able to perform activities like running, walking, jumping, or even sitting because of this joint. When your hip joint is unable to perform these activities, it is said to be suffering from an impingement. A deformity of the hip joint that significantly restricts its usual range of motion is the hip impingement definition. Many sport persons and other people who experience hip impingement relate it with pain centered around the groin area. It especially becomes intense during any rotating movement. Apart from the front of the hips, this pain can also be felt along the sides of the thighs and the buttocks. In medical terms, this condition is called femoroacetabular impingement. Let’s explore what really causes this condition, and is there a way by which it can be treated. What Are the Causes of Hip Impingement? Person experiencing hip pain while walking, Credit: Pixabay Hip impingement, to a large extent, is related to the deformities in the hip joint. But it can also develop in persons who have a history of indulging in various athletic activities. According to doctors, the upper part of the thigh bone loses its usual range of motion in the socket in this condition. Thus, the ability to move effortlessly and smoothly is significantly reduced. The two most common causes of hip impingement are: Femoral head deformity Socket deformity 1.   Femoral Head Deformity When the top or ball of the femur is shaped abnormally, then it has the tendency to jam into the socket when the hip bends. It happens particularly during activities like cycling, bike riding, bending over to pick something become extremely painful. 2.   Socket Deformity This deformity is characterised by the front rim of the socket sticking out unusually far. It causes the femur neck to bump into the socket rim during any normal hip movement. Are You at Risk of Developing Hip Impingement? Man engaged in strenuous physical activity, Credit: Pixabay If you have abnormally shaped hip bones then you’re prone to developing hip impingement. Elder people who suffer from osteoarthritis are also at risk. Young athletes as well as those who engage in highly demanding sports activities can also suffer from this condition. Symptoms of Hip Impingement Person experiencing pain in hip while bending, Credit: Pixabay Symptoms vary according to the severity of this injury. But the most common symptoms as experienced by a majority of the people include upper thigh, hip, and groin stiffness. Apart from stiffness, pain in these areas is also very common. The pain of this condition has a tendency to become severe during any exercise or physical exertion that involves lower body movement. You may experience the following symptoms: A clicking sound from within the hip joint. Pain in the pelvis area Difficulty in doing activities that require you to bend like tying your shoelaces A constant dull pain Activities like squatting, turning, or twisting may become painful Lower back pain Treatment of Hip Impingement A person being examined by doctor, Credit: Pixabay There are two major lines of treatment for this condition. They are Surgical treatment Non-surgical treatment 1.   Surgical Treatment Those with severe impingement issues have to undergo a surgery, as without it they cannot manage the condition. Surgeries like arthroscopy and hip replacement surgery can be availed depending upon the intensity of your pain. They help in restoring the normal range of motion of your hip joint. 2.   Non-surgical treatment Non steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs can be used if the damage in your hip joint is not very severe. Ice and heat therapy can help to reduce the pain and stiffness in the hip joint. Some strengthening hip exercises can be done under the guidance of an instructor. Hip impingement, if left untreated, can severely disrupt your normal range of motion and make it difficult for you to perform daily activities. If you feel like you cannot manage the pain then it’s the right time to reach out for medical help.

A concussion is an injury to the brain that is traumatic in nature. It’s trauma can range from mild to severe depending upon the nature of the injury that it has sustained. People who suffer from head concussion usually experience headaches, confusion, and slowed processing of the information by the brain. It is important for individuals to give themselves enough time for recovery. A question that commonly appears on the minds of people who have sustained concussions is ‘how long does it take to recover from a concussion’? The answer to this question is far from specific. It depends upon the age and the recovery habits of a person. Let’s explore it in detail below. What Are the Symptoms of a Head Concussion? Person experiencing headache and nausea, Credit: Pixabay Commonly experienced symptoms include: Headache Nausea Blurred vision Sensitivity to light Lack of concentration Altered sleep pattern The answer to the question of how long does it take to recover from a post concussion lies in the severity of your symptoms that are a consequence of the nature of your injury. How Long Does It Take to Recover from a Brain Concussion? Person being bandaged by doctor on head, Credit: Pixabay The duration of recovery varies from a week to 3 months. Sports-related concussions heal quickly, but other types can take months to heal. However, you cannot expect a total absence of all the symptoms even after you heal from the concussion. As a matter of fact, you become more susceptible to injuring yourself again and suffering a second concussion. It holds especially during the first year of recovering from the accident. If you find yourself struggling with concussion symptoms many days afterwards, it might be time to consult your doctor. How long does it take to recover from a second concussion? If you’ve already suffered from a previous concussion or have an existing neurological condition, then your rate of recovery will vary from a normal person. Also, if you fall into the category of an older adult, then it might take longer for you to heal. Factors That Affect Your Recovery Healthy food, Credit: Pixabay How long does it take to recover from a head concussion varies significantly according to the damage to your brain as a result of the injury or blow. You should prioritize complete rest and disengagement from any activities in the first week of your recovery process. If you involve yourself too soon with work or exercise, chances of the recovery rate reduces. Keep the following points in mind to enhance the process of recovery. Eating a protein rich diet daily. Food rich in omega-3 fatty acids like nuts, nut butters, and seeds. Undertaking complete rest How to Boost Your Recovery from a Concussion Person taking rest by sleeping, Credit: Pixabay It is essential for you to seek a doctor so that your condition can be fully diagnosed and evaluated. After a concussion has been diagnosed, you can take the following measures to make the process of recovery faster. Have a good night’s sleep and don’t involve yourself in too many tasks daily. Avoid all sources of stress and try to relax your mind as much as possible. A well-balanced diet is crucial to restore the normal functioning of your brain. Don’t indulge in too many sports as it can make you prone to another injury. If you suffer from nausea, you can take ginger tea or any other teas that can help you get relief from it. Avoid using all the electronic gadgets like television, smartphone, computer, etc. too much. Less screen time is better for the health of your brain. There is no specific cure for concussion. The above mentioned tips are useful in helping your brain to slowly get back to its original state. You should closely monitor your symptoms and seek help whenever you feel something doesn’t feel right. Do not at any cost rush the process of recovery. Take it slow as it’s a gradual process.

your eyes can hurt due to many reasons. There can be some underlying disease as well. You should get your eyes checked by an ophthalmologist. Find out the diseases that might cause your eyes to pain. Patients with subtle abnormalities on exam The first and most important step in the evaluation of eye pain is to perform a complete history and ocular exam. Most of the common etiologies for eye pain have obvious ocular exam findings (e.g., uveitis, corneal disease, dry eye, ophthalmoplegia). Subtle findings or footprints of prior etiologies can be easily missed by a cursory exam. The following etiologies require careful and specific evaluation in order to make the diagnosis. Scleritis Scleritis can present with ipsilateral eye pain. The pain is typically described as severe and deep, boring, and intense in quality. The pain may be intermittent or constant and is often associated with photophobia and tearing. Although typically centered on the eye or orbit pain, it may radiate to the face. There may be a history of underlying collagen vascular (e.g., systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis) or inflammatory disease. Patients with anterior scleritis are easy to diagnose because of the obvious external signs (e.g., marked injection of the sclera, deep vessel engorgement, focal tenderness, scleral nodule or thinning). Optic neuropathy Pain may occur in patients with an optic neuropathy. In most cases the diagnosis of an optic neuropathy on clinical exam is made easily on the basis of these findings. The optic disc is typically swollen in optic perineuritis, as opposed to a normal optic nerve in retrobulbar optic neuritis. The response to corticosteroid therapy is generally more dramatic than for optic neuritis and recurrences may occur after therapy is stopped. The pain in optic neuritis and optic perineuritis may precede the visual loss and the clinician should maintain a high index of suspicion for optic neuritis for young patients presenting with pain with eye movement. Pain may also be present in patients with ischemic optic neuropathy. Therefore, a complete exam of the afferent visual system (e.g., visual acuity, formal visual field, pupil testing) is necessary in all patients with eye pain. In addition, the patient should be cautioned to return if visual loss develops after the onset of eye pain. Carotid cavernous fistula Patients with carotid-cavernous sinus and dural-cavernous sinus fistulas typically have obvious orbital and lid findings. In these patients anterior drainage of the fistula into the superior ophthalmic vein produces the classic findings of the “red eye” shunt. However, some patients with low-flow dural-cavernous sinus fistulas predominantly present with eye pain with or without motility impairment but without significant eye redness or edema. Herpes zoster ophthalmicus Herpes zoster virus involving the trigeminal nerve can produce eye pain. Typically, there is evidence of the active or past vesicular, dermatomal distribution cutaneous eruption. Ocular involvement (e.g., scleritis, uveitis, keratitis) can occur after ophthalmic zoster. A history of zoster ophthalmicus or evidence for the vesicular rash should be sought in patients with presumed post herpetic neuralgia. Patients with transient abnormality on the ocular exam Patients with intermittent symptoms of eye pain may have a normal exam at the time of the ophthalmologic visit. In these patients, a careful exam for the “footprints” of a prior etiology should be performed. In addition, patients with recurrent symptoms might be asked to try to come in to the office during pain symptoms rather than simply scheduling a regular appointment. Several conditions present with intermittent symptoms and signs that are detectable only during an attack. Dry eye Patients with dry eye may complain of recurrent, intermit- tent, or constant unilateral or bilateral eye pain. Patients with severe dry eye often demonstrate obvious tear film abnor- malities, corneal epithelial erosions, epithelial staining with topical dyes (e.g., rose bengal, fluorescein) and abnormal Schirmer testing. Milder cases of dry eye however may have only intermittent or subtle signs. Clinicians should however avoid the temptation to provide topical anesthetic to eye pain patients as a treatment since chronic use of topical anesthetics may lead to masking of symptoms, abuse of the drug, and corneal toxicity. Orbital disease Patients with orbital disease (e.g., infection, tumor, inflammation, vascular lesions) typically produce obvious orbital signs, including proptosis, chemosis, injection, or ophthalmoplegia. Intermittent orbital pain with or without proptosis may occur with orbital vascular lesions (e.g., venous or arteriovenous malformations or lymphangioma). In these patients symptoms may occur transiently with straining (e.g., Valsalva maneuver), coughing, crying, bending, or hyperextending the neck. During the attacks the eye may become tense and painful, the pupil may dilate, and occasionally bradycardia or syncope may develop (oculocardiac syndrome). Gaze-evoked amaurosis (loss of vision in certain gaze positions) is also a sign of an orbital process. In specific positions of gaze the orbital lesion presumably compresses the optic nerve or the vascular supply and produces transient visual loss. Patients can be examined or imaged during the precipitating circumstance (e.g., Valsalva or head- hanging maneuver) in order to make the diagnosis. Phantom eye pain Patients who have undergone enucleation can develop phantom eye pain or phantom non-painful visual phenome- non (e.g., photopsias). Some patients with persistent pain after enucleation have an underlying amputation neuroma as the etiology. Clinicians should recognize that pain can persist in the eye even after enucleation. Idiopathic orbital myositis As noted above, although most patients with orbital inflammatory pseudotumor have definite abnormalities on the ocular exam (e.g., proptosis, ophthalmoplegia, red eye, some have a normal ocular exam. This is especially true for one subtype of orbital inflammatory disease, orbital myositis. Myositis is typically milder in severity, has a predilection for middle-aged adults, and is more common in women (2 : 1). The distinctive symptom is orbital pain wors- ened with eye movement. Superimposed or concomitant thyroid ophthalmopathy may occur in these patients. Cluster headache may be mimicked (“secondary” cluster) by sphenoid wing or high cervical meningioma, pituitary adenoma, dissection or aneurysm of the vertebral artery, occipital arteriovenous malformation, pseudoaneurysm of the intracavernous carotid artery, trauma, orbital/sphenoidal aspergillosis, temporal arteritis, and the Tolosa-Hunt syndrome. Atypical cases of cluster may be due to underlying orbital myositis. Primary short-lasting eye pain syndromes without autonomic features The primary short lasting eye pain syndromes without autonomic features include: trigeminal neuralgia, sphenopalatine and vidian neuralgia, ice-pick headache, exertional or cough related headache, and ice cream headache. Trigeminal neuralgia Trigeminal neuralgia (tic douloureux) is characterized by acute, severe, excruciating, lancinating, paroxysmal, and unilateral pain in the distribution of one or more of the divisions (often the maxillary or mandibular) of the trigeminal nerve. Ophthalmic division involvement is uncommon but can cause or be associated with stabbing eye pain. It is more common with older age, affects women more than men, and affects the right side more than the left. It is rarely bilateral (except in multiple sclerosis). The paroxysms are brief, usually lasting less than a minute. In severe cases, the pain may occur several times a day. The attacks are most frequent during the day, but may awaken the patient at night. The painful paroxysms are often triggered by non-nociceptive facial stimulation (e.g., touch, jaw movement, drinking hot or cold liquids). Greater occipital neuralgia Greater occipital neuralgia is a pain syndrome that is presumed to be due to irritation of the greater occipital nerve. The pain begins in the occiput but can radiate anteriorly to the ipsilateral eye. Local injection of the nerve with anesthetic may relieve the pain. Exertional or cough related headache or eye pain Although cough or exertional headache/eye pain may occur in patients due to transient increased intracranial pressure, most patients have negative neuroimaging. In these patients the pain with exertion, cough, or sexual activity is benign. The duration of episodes is short (less than one minute, but occasionally 30 minutes). Post-coital headache or orgasmic headache is typically frontal or occipital in location. The pain is often severe, explosive or throbbing in quality, and persists for minutes to hours. Ice-cream headache Eating ice cream or rapidly drinking a cold drink may cause severe pain (cold stimulus or ice-cream headache). The pain typically lasts 25 to 60 seconds and may be referred to the eye. The location may be unilateral or bifrontal and is more common in patients with migraine. Migraine headache Migraine is a common headache syndrome. Women are more affected than men. The headache duration is typically 4 to 72 hours. Migraine is usually unilateral and hemicranial (but can be bilateral or diffuse). The pain is typically described as pulsating or throbbing in quality and of moderate to severe intensity. Many patients have to stop what they are doing and the pain is often aggravated by routine physical activity. Pain referred to the eye is uncommon with typical migraine but can occur. Isolated eye pain, however, is unusual with migraine. Tension headache Tension headache is another common headache syndrome that may have an associated eye pain component. The headache is described as a “pressure” or “tightening” band and may be of mild or moderate severity. It is often bilateral and frontal. Autonomic dysfunction (e.g., nausea and vomiting) is typically absent. Refractive error, anisometropia, heterophoria or heterotropia, or prolonged or “intense” reading or studying may play a role in exacerbating or precipitating tension headache. Paranasal sinus disease Paranasal sinus disease can refer to the ipsilateral face or eye. Frontal sinus disease produces pain that is localized over the brow and forehead but may radiate to the eye or orbit. The pain is typically dull, deep, and aching in quality. Tenderness over the involved sinus may occur. Many patients report a long-standing history of sinus disease, sinus drainage, or other sinus symptoms.

No one is strange to the term ‘hiccups’. Everyone including children, adolescents, adults, elderly, and even infants experience it in their lives. Although they cause a slight discomfort, hiccups are nothing to worry about. They are involuntary muscle contractions and you should be concerned about treating them only if you are experiencing them persistently. How to get rid of hiccups fast is one question that people have often searched the answer for. It is because hiccups occur in a string and can to a large extent impact concentration, focus, and conversation of an individual. Sometimes they can even make it problematic for people to swallow their food. At night, if you are having hiccups, you will find that it is difficult for you to sleep. All of it only works to increase your frustration and fatigue. Hiccups become persistent if they continue for a duration of more than two days. They become intractable if they continue for over a month. Is there any answer to the question, how to get rid of hiccups? What Causes Hiccups? doctor showing stomach model, Credit: Canva Those who frequently get hiccups might often find themselves wondering, why do we get hiccups? To understand it, you should know the reason behind you getting hiccups. Gastrointestinal disorders are a major cause of hiccups. They are reflexive. That means, we have no control over them. Just like we sneeze and cough without being able to control these activities, similarly, we can experience hiccups due to various unknown factors and have no control over it. Some other causes that are put forward by the medical community include: Disorders of the central nervous system Metabolic disorders Intake of drugs like steroids, opioids, benzodiazepines, and antidopaminergics Psychogenic disorders What Are Newborn Hiccups? mother with her baby, Credit: Canva What is noteworthy with regards to hiccups is that it is quite common in newborn babies and infants too. When they experience it, it is called newborn hiccups. In fact, babies spend around 2.3 percent of their initial stage hiccuping. Slowly, as they develop more, you will notice that they are not hiccuping as much as they used to before. If you see your newborn baby getting hiccups constantly, it might terrify you. Babies are often seen hiccuping after they have been fed. The milk that you have fed them is often regurgitated into their throat. It might cause some irritation to the lining of their oesophagus and eventually contribute to them experiencing hiccups. You should remember that when your baby experiences hiccups, it is not a bad thing. They are getting rid of excessive air present in their abdomen through it. It is only when their hiccups become uncontrollable that you should contact a doctor. How to Get Rid of Newborn Hiccups? A baby sitting, Credit: Canva How to get rid of hiccups becomes a question of increasing importance when it is your baby who is dealing with it. As mentioned before, do not take it lightly if your baby is continuously dealing with it. If he or she spits and coughs along with hiccups, then it is probable that they are suffering from heartburn or gastroesophageal reflux disease or GERD. It is very common in babies because their lower esophageal sphincter is weak. As they grow old, this part gets stronger and does not allow the acid to come back to their food pipe. There are some important things that you need to keep in mind with regards to baby or newborn hiccups. Only after gaining a knowledge of these pointers, will you be able to find out how to get rid of hiccups. Take a few breaks while feeding your baby. It will help him or her to burp and get the excess air out of their system. Sometimes, the hiccups can be stopped by distracting your child. Try to attract their attention towards any other activity or make them laugh. Remember that hiccups are not harmful and do not indicate any serious health issue. They may occur and then stop within a short time on their own. You do not have to take any elaborate action. If your baby is hiccuping and vomiting at the same time, you should talk to your doctor. It is probable that they are dealing with some digestive issues. Never overlook the hiccups that cause your baby to not breathe properly. You should immediately turn to your doctor if this happens. How to Get Rid of Baby Hiccups? Father feeding baby, Credit: Canva These effective home remedies will provide significant relief to your newborn when he or she is dealing with hiccups. They are safe and will not cause any side effects. Track your baby’s hiccuping time. If you find him or her hiccuping at specific times like after feeding, the cause might be in the speed of your feeding process. Consider slowing your speed. Facilitate effective burping of your baby. The major cause of hiccup is the more than usual air bubbles that get trapped inside your baby’s body when they are being fed. Burping is a very effective way to eliminate all the gas that may trigger hiccups in your baby. While you are feeding, pay some attention to the design of your feeding bottle. You might not know, but the design of some bottles makes the air to get confined in the body of your baby as they are eating. Look for different designs that will allow the elimination of air from your baby’s body. Sometimes, it is best to go to a doctor. It assumes importance when you see your baby vomiting and coughing along with hiccups. It is an indicator of an underlying disease that requires the attention of a medical professional. Do not try to administer any medicine to your baby on your own without seeking the guidance of a professional. Gripe water is an effective home remedy that will help your baby get relief from the persistent discomfort. It is composed of herbs like ginger, chamomile, cinnamon, and fennel, all of which are very effective in giving relief to those who are suffering from gastric issues. It will also not cause any side effects in your baby.

Colistin, also called polymyxin E, belongs to the group of polymyxin antibiotics (antibacterials). It is an old antibiotic discovered in the 1940s but its clinical use was largely abandoned in the 1970s mainly due to its nephrotoxicity Parenteral and nebulisation formulations for colistin contain the sodium salt of colistin methanesulfonate (CMS), also called colistimethate, which is an inactive prodrug. The aim of this review is to give an updated summary on colistin with respect to its complex pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. A literature search was conducted using PubMed where colistin or colistin methanesulfonate were combined with key words such as chemistry, bioanalysis, pharmacokinetics Some reports showed that polymyxins act through an alternative mode of action, a secondary mechanism, which involves inhibition of type II nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH)-quinone oxidoreductases (NDH-2) activity in inner membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. Uses of colistin colistin antibiotic Antibacterial Activity Susceptibility breakpoints for colistin published by EUCAST are 2 mg/L for P. aeruginosa, Acinetobacter spp. and Enterobacteriaceae. For now, the susceptibility breakpoint published by CLSI is 2 mg/L for both P. aeruginosa and Acinetobacter spp. (resistance if MIC C8 and 4 mg/L, respectively) but this breakpoint should be revised. Resistance to colistin has been described in many GNB species such as A. baumannii, K. pneumoniae and P. aeruginosa. Colistin resistance in GNB is most commonly related to LPS modifications via diverse routes, of which several involve two-component regulatory systems (TCSs). PhoPQ and PmrAB are two TCSs whose functions and regulations overlap. Dosage Forms of colistin Colistin can be administered in the form of an injection. For colistin injection 150 mg/vial dose is given. Side effects of colistin colistin tab Two main types of toxicity, nephrotoxicity and neurotoxicity, are reported with the use of colistin. However, recent studies have reported that the incidence of nephrotoxicity is less common and severe than that reported in studies and case reports published until 1983. Dosing Suggestions Considering the pharmacokinetics of both CMS and colistin, the CMS dose has to be adapted to each patient’s renal function. In case of normal renal function, all of the previous cited studies recommend a maintenance dose of 9 MIU of CMS per day in two or three injections, which corresponds to the calculated maintenance dose suggested by the algorithm of Garonzik et al. It is of note that the most recent publications all agree that CMS should be administered twice daily. Interactions If you are taking other drugs along with this, then your doctor must know about this. Taking other drugs with it could alter how your medicines react. You should know about all products be it advised by doctor or taken by you over the counter or any herbal/ayurvedic medicines. Do not stop taking the medicines as per your choice. Always consult the medical professional before making any alteration in the medicine list. It is of note that the cyclic structure of colistin helps to protect colistin from proteolytic endopeptidases and the hydrophobic acyl chain helps to protect against exopeptidases, thus explaining that the colistin half-life (t) is longer than that of many peptide Precautions to be taken with colistin colistin antibiotic Tablet If you have any allergy specially to colistin then you must inform your chemist or doctor about it. you should discuss in detail before consuming this. This could contain certain components which could cause allergy. You should discuss in detail about your medical or family history, or problems related to the renal system. Consuming this could make you dizzy or light headed. Alertness could be reduced, so you should avoid doing things that require utmost attention. Do not take drinks or alcohol with it. weed or marijuana also should not be taken. In case you are taking any of these then talk to your doctor to it. stomach could also feel upset about it. if that is the case then take medical help immediately. As such there are no serious side effects to it. It is very widely prescribed by doctors and many patients consume it. Few of the side effects could be numbness around arms, legs etc. Mood and mental alteration can be done leading to confusion, dizzy feeling, slurry speech, weak muscles, breathing issues, changed urine color.

Jowar or sorghum is very widely cultivated in India. It is a very healthy grain and is a great alternate to wheat. This is gluten free and is specially beneficial for people with gluten allergy. It is grown in Asia and Africa and can adapt very well in harsh conditions. Jowar is a tall plant that has been a part of our cuisine since ancient times. This is very versatile and can be grinded to a flour and can be made into porridge, malt, rotis etc. different types of grains are gaining increasing popularity in recent times. This crop can grow easily in dry and heat related conditions and is a staple food for rural or poor people. Health benefits of jowar jowar Blood sugar regulator: it is a good option for people with diabetes and should be a part of your diet. When you eat this, the blood sugar levels do not spike immediately. It is filled with fibres and regulates digestion as well. Effective against cancer: Jowar can scavenge the harmful free radicals and is beneficial in  life threatening diseases like cancer etc. Active against microorganisms like bacteria and fungus Regulates blood circulation in the body: It help in stimulation of red blood cells that boost the oxygen supply to the organs. Jowar is filled with healthy nutrients: This has many vitamins like b complex. Contains complex carbohydrates. Fibre levels are also high. Our muscles need proteins to function well and this dal has loads of it. This is specially good for the vegetarians out there. Protein also helps in building up new tissues and repairing the old ones. Cartilage, skin, and bone are benefitted from it. Very versatile and can be eaten in any form: Be it dessert or savory items, this dal can be a part of any and almost every recipe. Great option for vegetarians: This can be easily replaced by non veg food since it os a good source of protein. Good for pregnancy: it is healthy for women who are pregnant as it has many healthy nutrients like vitamins, minerals. Pregnant women need good nutrition for the healthy growth and development of their child. Few recipes of jowar that can be made easily jowar in fields Jowar ki roti you need to take jowar flour which is easily available in the market or you can grind it yourself and prepare the flour. You can add salt, chilli, ajwain seeds, onions, corianders seeds into the flour. Then take hot water and start kneading until you achieve a good smoth dough. You can leave it on for a while. Then make a small ball out of it and then flatten it with hands and make it into a round shape. Roll it and use jowar flour on it and then place it on a tawa which is hot. Cook one side for a bit until it turns brown and then flip and let it cook on the other side also. Let it rise and then serve the jowar roti hot. You can easily enjoy it with vegetables or lentils of your choice. You ca easily replace the normal wheat rotis with jowar rotis. This will keep you fuller for a long time and decrease your appetite, thus aiding in weight loss. A dessert made of jowar: Jowar Halwa For this you’ll need jowar flour around one cup. Ghee or clarified butter, sugar or jaggery as per how much sweetness you like. You can either add milk or water into it. method: add ghee in a hot pan, after the ghee is hot add the jowar flour into it. mix it till it turns brown and a nice aroma starts coming. To this add three times the water and mix it well. Then you may add sugar or jaggery to it. Make sure lumps are not present. If you want to loose weight then use jaggery instead of sugar to cut down the calories. Side Effects of consuming jowar Although jowar is good for diabetics and people who want to shed extra weight. But, jowar has hydrogen cyanide which is harmful and poisonous and can cause fatality.

If chloramphenicol is given to infants for bacterial infections in excess, then a side effect called as grey baby syndrome occurs. It can cause many harmful signs and symptoms in infants but is totally preventable. Aggressive supportive measures, termination of chloramphenicol therapy, and exchange transfusion did not improve the clinical status. Charcoal hemoperfusion also effectively removes chloramphenicol from serums and could possibly have benefited our patient, but was not available in our institution. While exchange transfusion should be considered a therapeutic modality for this condition, it cannot be regarded as a safe or innocuous procedure in a patient with cardiovascular collapse. A new generation of physicians, nurses, and hospital pharmacists must be aware of appropriate indications and dosage schedules of chloramphenicol for infants and neonates. Careful clinical monitoring of patient status and the timely therapeutic monitoring of serum chloramphenicol levels in any neonate receiving the drug are essential, even when it is administered at recommended dosage. SPITE the well-known toxic effects of chloramphenicol, especially the grey syndrome of infants and children, errors in prescription and administration of this drug continue to occur. What is Grey Baby Syndrome caused by? Neonatal and fetal ability to glucuronidate chloramphenicol is unpredictable and diminished when compared with older children and adults, making the newborn especially susceptible to chloramphenicol toxicity. The fetus is also at risk because chloramphenicol concentrations in fetal serum are 30 to 80 per cent of the concurrent maternal serum concentration. The neonate loses the ability to clear the drug via the placenta at the time of birth. If the patients are exposed to chloramphenicol in the perinatal period as well as in the newborn period, received 10 times the recommended dose of 25 mg/kg/day, then it is said to cause this syndrome. Within 24 hours of life the child will develop abdominal distention, vomiting, progressive cyanosis, irregular respiration, hypothermia, and vasomotor collapse. These findings are typical of the grey syndrome which is the direct result of toxic levels of chloramphenicol.  Levels more than 50mcg/ml are fatal. It can lead to collapse of the circulatory system imparting a ash or grey color to the skin. If the liver of the newborn cannot utilize chloramphenicol effectively then this syndrome can occur. If the kidney’s of the neonates are not capable of excreting chloramphenicol. But if the baby is healthy and full term then it might not affect them. It affects the premature ones more. Causes For Grey Baby Syndrome Smiling Baby Below mentioned risk factors can lead to grey baby syndrome Ineffective liver and kidney Excess chloramphenicol Increased duration of treatment with chloramphenicol Premature or underweight infants Chloramphenicol dose is based on the age of the neonates. For different age and weight, different doses of chloramphenicol is given. Breastfeeding mothers should not take this as they might pass it to their babies. Symptoms Of The Grey Baby Syndrome Playing Baby The severity of the disease will depend on the status of liver and kidney and how much dose is given . Grey baby syndrome symptoms are listed below: Tiredness Weak feeling Nausea and vomiting Less mental alertness Grey skin color Tender abdomen Distended abdomen Blue nails and skin Respiratory problems Temperature of the body is low Immediate medical help should be taken if these symptoms are seen. Complications Of The Grey Baby Syndrome The complications of grey baby syndrome are listed below: Liver fail Kidney fail Anemia Inflammation in the nerves Shock Sepsis Chloramphenicol could displace bilirubin and cause jaundice Diagnosis Of Grey Baby Syndrome If the skin color is ash grey and the patient has been taken chloramphenicol then grey baby syndrome is diagnosed. The doctor will search for signs and symptoms related to its toxicity. Following tests can be done to diagnose grey baby syndrome Ct scans, x-rays, ultrasound, ECG. Blood test scan also be done to detect chloramphenicol. Cardiac tests to detect issues related to the heart. Trauma, shock, infections can also be looked out for. Grey Baby Syndrome treatment Chloramphenicol treatment should not be given to the babies. Babies should receive full support in the Neonatal ICU. Proper oxygen, ventilation etc. should be given. Hypoglycaemia or hypothermia might develop and should be treated. Chloramphenicol should be removed from the blood directly by the following: Cephalosporins can be given to treat grey baby syndrome Charcoal hemoperfusion: this a method carried outside the body to eliminate the toxins from the blood. Transfusion: babies blood can be replaced by fresh blood or plasma. Prognosis Of Grey Baby Syndrome If the chloramphenicol treatment is immediately stopped or it is removed from the blood, then situation can be prevented from becoming worse. If it becomes severe then death or organ failure could occur. Prevention Of Grey Syndrome The best way is not to prescribe chloramphenicol at all by the concerned doctor. The doctors for babies should choose safer antibiotics. Avoid prescribing it to new mothers or breast feeding mothers. Give them safer antibiotics. If in any case it has to be given, then give it in low doses to avoid toxicity. Blood levels should be tracked and closely monitored. This drug should be used as a last resort and should be avoided to treat bacterial infections. You should know its benefits and harms before consuming it. if you take chloramphenicol for long or excessively then it results in toxicity in the body.

Methemoglobinemia, or blue baby syndrome most commonly develops in the infants. This condition is caused by high intake of nitrate (NO:f) and nitrite (N(V). Nitrates and nitrites are found in most types of food, including cured and fresh meats, fruits, vegetables, baked goods, and dairy products. Nitrates are everywhere and in small quantities are present in the air. Drinking-Water Link Very high nitrate levels can occur in drinking water under the right conditions. The major use of nitrate is in fertilizers. Nitrates not used by plant life are washed into the groundwater. Nitrate in water does not react with other chemicals and is not retained on soil. It can migrate long distances with the flow of groundwater. Other forms of nitrogen in the soil can be oxidized to nitrate by soil bacteria when oxygen is present. Levels of 30 mg/L-N (expressed in nitrogen content) and higher have been found in drinking water wells in agricultural areas. Nitrite is usually found only in trace amounts in drinking water. It is more reactive than nitrate and can be oxidized to nitrate in the environment. Infants can be exposed to these contaminants when they drink formula made with water high in nitrate and nitrite. Drinking water is the most significant source of these contaminants for infants during the first three to six months of life if fed formula made with water high in nitrate or nitrite. Health Effects The health effects of ingested nitrate and nitrite are related. When water con taining nitrate is consumed, a portion of it is converted to nitrite in the mouth and stomach. The nitrite and nitrate get absorbed via the intestine and the body reacts with hemoglobin and forms methemoglobin. Methemoglobin is incapable to carry oxygen to body organs and tissues. The result is asphyxia, or suffocation, causing a blue skin color leading to death. Infants with diarrhea are particularly prone to the effects of methemoglobinemia because they synthesize the nitrite Causes of blue baby syndrome Happy Baby If the skin or organs like heart, lungs do not receive enough or the required amount of oxygen then, the skin becomes blue in color. Hence, the name given to this is blue baby syndrome. Methemoglobinemia is a condition of nitrate poisoning. If babies drink well water and eat foods filled with nitrates then this syndrome could occur. Symptoms of blue baby syndrome Inability to grow normally Irritation Feeding difficulty Tiredness Diagnosis can be made by blood tests, chest x-ray, ECG, oxygen levels can be tested. A drug called methylene blue can be taken to provide oxygen to the body. Treatment of blue baby syndrome New born The presence of nitrates and nitrites in agricultural products are very dangerous and hazardous. Abundant uses of compost, manure, and chemical fertilizers are considered to be some of the primary causes of high levels of nitrates in produce (1). Nitrate may also be present as a natural metabolite of nitrogen intake by green plants (2). Although it is generally accepted that nitrate itself is not toxic, it can act as a reservoir for the production of nitrite by bacterial action on food during storage or within the body during digestion (3). They can also react with hemoglobin [Fe(II)], oxidizing it to methemoglobin [Fe(III)] in a condition known as methemoglobinemia or blue baby syndrome. The oxidized methemoglobin is then incapable of performing the important task of oxygen transport. This is of particular concern for infants under 4 months of age because of the higher stomach pH (greater than the pH of adult stomachs; pH = 4), which can facilitate the conversion of nitrate to nitrite. Several analytical approaches to the determination of nitrate and nitrite in food are available. The current AOAC Official Method (993.03) for determination of nitrate and nitrite in baby food  is a spectrophotometric method requiring reduction of nitrate to nitrite using spongy cadmium followed by colorimetric determination at 530 nm. Several liquid chromatography (LC) methods, including that used by the European Committee for Standardization, consist of chromatographic separation followed by UV detection at 214 nm. The disadvantage of the spectrophotometric method is the use of cadmium, which is toxic and carcinogenic. Also, this method does not directly distinguish nitrate from nitrite. The disadvantage of the LC/UV methods is that sample matrix compounds remaining in the extract can mask the response at the selected wavelength. The method reported here easily detects both nitrate and nitrite using suppressed conductivity without the use of hazardous metals and without interferences. A new method was developed for the extraction and determination of nitrate and nitrite in fruit and vegetable baby foods. Using electrolytically generated potassium hydroxide eluant, nitrate and nitrite were separated on a hydroxide-selective, high-capacity anion exchange column and detected by using suppressed conductivity. A simple extraction followed by clarification and centrifugation yielded a final extract that could be diluted and filtered for analysis. Use of borate buffer for the extraction of highly acidic. Representative chromatogram obtained for nitrate/nitrite standards. Peak identification: 1 = nitrite, 2 = carbonate (due to dissolved CO2), 3 = nitrate. Standard and samples with incurred nitrate residue: (a) multi-ion standard; 1: fluoride, 2: chloride, 3: nitrite, 4: carbonate (from dissolved CO2), 5: sulfate, 6: bromide, 7: nitrate, 8: phosphate; (b) butternut squash; (c) banana; (d) garden vegetables; (e) creamed spinach. This new method uses mostly aqueous reagents, eliminates cadmium, and eliminates interferences seen with LC/UV methods. Chromatography Optimization Initially, isocratic elution was used. Separation of the analytes (fluoride, chloride, nitrite, sulfate, bromide, nitrate, and phosphate) was sufficient in the multi-ion standard; however, nitrite and chloride eluted closely. The baby food contained sufficient amounts of anions to cause resolution problems. Therefore, a gradient was chosen to obtain further separation of nitrite and chloride. Although there are ways of removing the chloride from the samples (e.g., silver pretreatment column), a gradient program was the most cost-effective solution. The conditions for the chromatography were as described above. A representative chromatogram of a nitrate/nitrite standard. A small peak for carbonate was caused by dissolved CO2 in the buffer used to dilute the standards. The chromatograms for the samples with incurred nitrate residues, along with the multi-ion standard, are seen in. There are many other ions in the samples, including chloride, carbonate, and sulfate but the nitrate peak is well resolved in all of the chromatograms. The recoveries for nitrite in acidic matrixes, namely fruits, were diminished by using the water extraction.